FASHION HISTORY - Georgian style

some of the wider fashionable influences and events of the 18th-century, reflect improvements in communication across Europe during the 1700s, a trend that increases as the centuries progress.

With the exception of George IV (1820-30), the Georgian kings were less showy in their personal fashion than their Tudor and Stuart predecessors, but they still had high standards and expectations of their courtiers. We’ve seen how dress was literally a ticket into court and the royal presence.

At the same time, during this period we start to see an increasing gap between styles of fashionable dress and that worn at court, particularly when it comes to the hooped skirts of the mantua.

fashion history- Fit for a princess - the GEORGIANS

A Georgian princess needed more than a mantua to be properly dressed. From the many under layers to the different costumes for each daily activity, her wardrobe was indeed full. We have a wonderful record of this from 1787, when the 14-year-old Harriet Johnson created nine different costumes for her cut-out paper doll, all based on Queen Charlotte’s dresses.

Harriet really understood the importance of having the right set of clothes, and her doll would not have been embarrassed among other society ladies. Her outfits include two semi-formal robes à l’anglaise(fitted closed bodice with open skirt to show the petticoat underneath), a fashionable morning caraco (short jacket) and skirt, an outdoor redingote (masculine riding coat), a winter outdoor ensemble with a large wrap and fur muff (hand warmer), a simple indoor dress, semi-formal robe à la circassienne (gown with asymmetric skirt), a mourning dress and a court mantua. 

To keep all these outfits looking (and smelling) perfect, layers of undergarments were crucial. They helped to support the enormous skirts and mould the body to the fashionable, but completely unnatural lines. In the morning, a princess started her dressing process with a long chemise or shift. This simple white gown (like a nightgown) was basically her underwear – the first piece of clothing in direct contact with her body. These chemises were usually made of very fine linen or cotton and a fashionable lady could have them trimmed with lace or embroidered with her monogram. In a time when bathing was not a customary practice, changing your chemise daily helped to maintain some degree of freshness. They also protected the expensive outer garments from bodily secretions. Many of the elaborate textiles, especially the ones woven or embroidered with metal threads, could not be washed; the best way to keep them clean was to keep them from touching the skin.

Next came two or more layers of petticoats, which provided warmth and volume. They were usually made of a coarse linen or wool, and depending on how many layers you wore, they could become quite heavy. At the top, linen stays (a predecessor to the corset) reinforced with strips of whalebone moulded the torso to the desired V shape and forced the breasts up. They also created a rigid base for the gown to be arranged on. A large fabric pocket followed, sometimes decorated with pretty embroidery, and tied around the waist. This acted as a sort of purse, where a lady could carry all her essentials and a secret letter or two.

On top of the chemise, petticoats and pocket sat the hoops, made of linen and stiffened with whalebone or cane. Their shapes and sizes evolved according to the changing silhouettes, round one moment, square the next, and from flat to bulky. Stockings were next, secured by ribbon garters above or below the knees. They were made of fine knitted cotton, silk or wool and usually had delicate clocks (the area around the ankle), which were either knitted in or embroidered in bright, contrasting colours. Stockings could also be expensive and even princesses were expected to make them last. George II’s daughters were only allowed 12 pairs every two years. The swinging movement of the stiff skirts often gave a glimpse of the beautiful stockings and shoe to a lucky observer. Once all these layers were on, a lady was finally considered ‘undressed’, that is, ready to wear her gown.

Accessories also occupied a special place in a wealthy woman’s wardrobe, particularly shoes. Fashionable ladies wore pointed, heeled shoes made of fine silks, such as damasks and brocades, which were often decorated with gold or silver braids and detachable jewelled buckles (header). Their silks did not need to match the dress (except for very formal occasions), and so could be worn over and over again with different ensembles. The same with the buckles; one pair was enough to enrich many shoes. Such fragile footwear was not meant for working women or intended to be worn out-of-doors – it would never survive the deadly combination of British weather and unpaved streets. To protect your beautiful shoes, you could wear pattens, wooden platform soles that were tied to your shoes and helped to raise them from muddy/dirty ground. Although protective, they were quite clumsy and better suited for the short distance between door and carriage. For a walk, a lady was better equipped with plain leather ankle boots or flats. At home, fashionable ladies also wore slippers, a backless mule made of silk decorated with embroideries and lace. They were delicate, feminine and rather sexy, and can often be found in many rococo paintings, especially those depicting intimate scenes of ladies in their toilettes.

Finally, there were myriad trimmings, such as lace flounces, ribbons, feathers and artificial flowers that could be used as further embellishments. These were added at the very end of the dressing process. You could transfer them from one gown to another and arrange them in different combinations to show your good taste and individual style. They also created the illusion that you owned a greater number of dresses. Although princesses and courtiers had far more garments than the average woman, clothing was still extremely costly. Being creative with your trimmings was a clever way to manage your clothes allowance. Another trick to keep your wardrobe looking fresh was to constantly alter your gowns to the new styles. This way you could keep wearing the precious textiles for longer, without looking old-fashioned.

Sustainable fashion

It would be easy to assume that life as a royal in the 18th century must have meant endless new clothes for every possible occasion. George II’s daughters, for example, were allowed a new pair of shoes every week, and when you see Queen Victoria’s black satin shoes from nearly a hundred years later, you can see how they might not have lasted very long.

Such conspicuous consumption was unusual, however, and in general clothes and fabrics would have been reused and altered until they were no longer recognisable. The princesses may have been allowed a new pair of shoes every week, but they were only allowed 12 pairs of stockings every two years.

Garments were repaired or remodelled for a different use. Linen shirts, for example, once they had been repaired beyond use, could have been remodelled to make a garment for a child, or the rags could even eventually have been broken down for paper.

This tells us a lot about the wealth and investment that was tied up in cloth and clothing, and the people of the past would probably be horrified at how society today can buy items of clothing, wear them once and discard them more or less immediately.

Regency Style

As the long 18th century came to a close, in the West both society and fashion were going through big changes. In Britain, the elderly George III’s health was deteriorating and it became clear that His Majesty was no longer fit to rule. His eldest son George, the extravagant Prince of Wales, formally became Prince Regent in 1811, ruling, in his father’s place for the remainder of the King’s life.

In fashion, changes were already noticeable from the 1780s, when both men and women started to adopt simpler, more informal styles. In 1783, Queen Marie Antoinette, shocked genteel French society when a portrait of her was exhibited wearing a chemise à la reine. This was a simple dress of white muslin with long sleeves, low neckline and its soft fullness gathered with a sash around the waist. Unlike the previous fashionable garments, this was made all in one piece and put on over the head, just like a chemise. The painting was withdrawn, but the fuss it had created helped to popularise the style.

By the new century, women’s fashionable dress had evolved to a long and slim silhouette, with fitted bodice, high waistline (just below the bust) and narrow but loose skirt. According to the 1811 book The Mirror of the Graces; or, the English Lady’s Costume, written by ‘A Lady of Distinction’:

‘In the morning the arms and bosom must be completely covered to the throat and wrists. From the dinner-hour to the termination of the day, the arms, to a graceful height above the elbow, may be bare; and the neck and shoulders unveiled as far as delicacy will allow.’

Instead of the heavy silks, clothes were made of light, sheer (sometimes almost transparent) fabrics such as linen, muslin, and silk net, and were often white. Colour came in the form of trimmings around the neck, waist and hem and warmth was provided by large rectangular shawls.

This style was popular from around 1795 to 1820 and can be referred to as Directory style or Empire line after the political regimes in revolutionary France, or as Regency fashion after the Prince Regent in Britain. Inspiration for this style came from the Greeks and Romans, following excavations of the ancient cities of Pompeii, Herculaneum and Athens.

The Regency style also coincided with the life of Charlotte, Princess of Wales. Born in 1796, she was the only legitimate daughter of the Prince of Wales and his estranged wife, Caroline of Brunswick. As a child, Charlotte was described as a tomboy, but flourished into a good-natured, tall and beautiful young woman. She loved music and read extensively. She particularly enjoyed Jane Austen’s Sense and Sensibility, remarking ‘I think Maryanne and me are very like in disposition’. Most of all, she was adored by the nation, as people looked forward to her succeeding her unpopular father.

In 1816, Charlotte married Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Saafeld (later Leopold I, King of the Belgians). By now, her free spending father was deep in debt, so her trousseau was paid for by her grandmother, Queen Charlotte. It was made by two London dressmakers – Mrs Triaud was responsible for the wedding dress, going-away outfit and eight dresses, while Mrs Bean created 26 dresses.

Her wedding dress reflects the high-waisted Regency fashion. It was made of very fine silk net embroidered with silver over a slip of silver tissue, and trimmed with Brussels lace. She also wore a train of silver tissue lined with white silk satin and embroidered with silver. On her head, there was a wreath of diamonds in the shape of rosebuds and a diamond hairpin. Her jewellery also included earrings, an armlet and a set of pearls.

The groom wore for the first time a full British uniform decorated with many insignias, a sword and belt ornamented with diamonds and other gems. The Prince Regent and his brothers also wore military uniforms embellished with insignias.

After their wedding, the couple enjoyed a very happy, but tragically brief marriage. In 1817, the 21-year-old Princess became pregnant, to general delight. However, she suffered a long and traumatic labour, lasting nearly two days, and after being delivered of a stillborn son, Charlotte died of post-birth complications. In an instant, the nation had lost two generations of heirs to the throne and the shock led to national mourning. Her father’s grief was so intense that he became ill, and all over the country linen-drapers ran out of black mourning cloth. Charlotte’s death also marked the decline of Regency fashion. By the time of George IV’s coronation, a new silhouette was emerging, with waistlines gradually descending, and skirts becoming wider.

fashion history: Dressing for court

In every period, clothing will reflect national traditions and customs. In the 18th century it was particularly effective in expressing social rank and status. Wearing the right costumes was not only a sign of good manners but also a necessity. Dress codes were strictly observed and enforced using the threat of strong social disapproval and sometimes even physical force.

It was common for those discovered wearing clothes too grand for their rank to be attacked as ‘pretenders’. Servants who were fortunate enough to receive discarded clothes from their masters had to simplify the garments before they could wear them. Even those who had the means to buy expensive and luxurious clothes still needed to dress appropriately for their social position, or risk being shamed and ridiculed.

At court, dress codes were even stricter than in wider society, since these rules controlled who could attend court events. In the 18th century there was no formal system of invitation to court, and there was no need. Court dress was so expensive that only the wealthiest in the top tiers of society could afford it. As long as you were dressed according to the rules, you would be granted admission.

The amounts the nobility spent on clothing is staggering. In 1711 Anne, Countess of Strafford, paid £100 for her new court dress, roughly £8,000 in today’s money. Lady Mary Coke spent £70 (over £5,000 today) for the silk alone to make her a new court dress in 1767. The Duke of Bedford’s silk suit embroidered with silver thread, spangles and diamonds cost him £500 in 1790, the equivalent of £28,000 today. These were the prices for single garments, and a complete outfit also included many accessories and jewellery. Also, courtiers were expected to have a number of them, since wearing the same outfit too many times was considered disrespectful towards the monarch. Not surprisingly, Lady Louisa Stuart complained ‘fifteen or sixteen hundred a year would not do very much for two people who must live in London and appear in fine clothes at St. James’s twice a week’. However, for the aristocracy, this was considered an essential expense.

To attend a court event was not only a great honour, but also the opportunity to ascend the social ladder. Court was more than the place where the monarch and his family met the nobility, courtiers and political figures; it was the centre of power, influence and fashion. It was important for an individual to attend as often as possible, since it provided an opportunity to conduct political business and seek potential royal favour. There were many court events throughout the year, including Sunday church services, Levées, Drawing rooms and celebrations such as royal birthdays. Drawing rooms were attended by both men and women and were larger occasions often held several times a week at ten o’clock in the evening. Guests waited for the monarch or his consort to make an appearance. The royal birthday celebrations were particularly exciting. They involved grand balls with music, dancing, gambling and a display of fireworks.

Dressing well played an important political role at court; wearing exquisite silk or rich embroidery could attract the attention of the king or queen in the middle of a crowd of courtiers. Mrs Delany, an English artist, attended many court events in the 18th century and recalled in a letter to her sister in 1728/9:

‘On Saturday the first day of March, it being Queen Caroline’s birth-day, I dressed myself in all my best array, borrowed my Lady Sunderland’s jewels, and made a tearing show. I went with my Lady Carteret and her two daughters. There was a vast Court, and my Lady Carteret got with some difficulty to the circle, and after she had made her curtsey made me stand before her. The Queen came up to her, and thanked her for bringing me forward, and she told me she was obliged to me for my pretty clothes, and admired my Lady Carteret’s extremely; she told the Queen that they were my fancy, and that I drew the pattern. Her Majesty said she had heard that I could draw very well (I can’t think who could tell her such a story); she took notice of my jewels; I told her they were my Lady Sunderland’s; “Oh” says she, “you were afraid I should think my Lord Selkirk gave them to you, but I believe he only admires, for he will not be so free of his presents…”.’

So, getting noticed was important, as it could lead to a chat, or several chats, with the monarch. Other courtiers would look on enviously if the king or queen spoke to you more than once. It was considered a sign of favour and the higher you grew in royal favour, the more powerful you could become.

The 1700s was an era where men were the leaders of fashion, their elaborate wigs, gorgeous silks and complex embroideries threatening to outshine the ladies- the ticket to the Georgian court: a good suit.

This beautiful 1790s pale lavender gentleman’s suit with fine embroidery and delicate lace evolved from the men’s fashions but with the extra frills and details required to show one’s wealth in the cutthroat atmosphere of court life, where your clothes could quite literally cost you a small fortune.

The court jacket  would have been worn for a drawing room, which is essentially a nightly event that was held at court after dinner, where courtiers would assemble to try and get the attention of the king and queen. And there was no such thing as a sort of formalised guest list. You just had to dress for the part. So the guards would let you in if you looked to be of a sufficient status, and that isn't quite as risky as it sounds. Because, of course, the amount of wealth and cost that would have gone into looking the part basically excluded most people from being able to bluff their way in. some people went out of their way to invest significant amounts of wealth, sometimes mortgaging their properties in order to look right, and, worse than having to mortgage your property in order to get a suit like this, would be the fact that if you wore it more than once or twice, it was commented upon. And so any favour that you might have won by looking smart was lost because they'd know you were a bluffer. Often the colours for court suits were quite pale, quite light, quite jolly, quite feminine colours with feminine decoration and embellishment. The jacket would have been worn with a matching waistcoat and matching breeches, and there would have been an abundance of lace and fine linen at the neck and at the cuff. This jacket would actually have been worn open so that the waistcoat and all of its embellishments and embroidery would be visible underneath. -a sort of visual feast. often with a sort of naturalistic embroidery motif coming down it, and on the pockets and the cuffs, beautiful flowers. Of course, this was all hand-embroidered. probably done to a pattern, because there are repeats. So they may have placed a sort of paper pattern and then pounced through with charcoal or chalk and then embroidered to that pattern. Every repeat is slightly different. no uniform repeats, always unique!

side effects of this pressure of looking magnificent at court and not being seen wearing the same thing twice is there was a sort of very secretive little black market, or not black market but sort of secondary market of these suits. So there would be a little bit of swapping and kind of onward selling and kind of refashioning and repurposing - altering.

The evolution of the mantua

For centuries there had been an understanding that clothes worn at court should be special and expensive. As we have seen already, the high costs for dressing according to the strict codes served as an entry ticket to court in the 18th century. Only the wealthy elite could afford the elaborate silk garments decorated with exquisite embroidery, delicate lace and precious jewellery.

Courtiers also needed to have a number of these garments so as not to offend the monarch, and to keep up with the rest of the glittering circle. Other courtiers, equally intent on attracting royal attention, could be viciously critical of their competition at court.

The court dress worn by women originated in the 1670s, at the court of Louis XIV in Versailles. Known as grand habit or ‘stiff-bodied gown’, it comprised a heavily boned, pointed bodice with off-the-shoulder neckline and short sleeves, a hooped skirt and a train.

In England, this heavy and uncomfortable costume was only worn at the most special occasions, such as royal weddings. By the early 18th century, the grand habit evolved into the mantua and petticoat, which continued to be worn at court right up until Queen Charlotte’s death in 1818 ‒ long after it became unfashionable in wider society.

The formal mantua started as a loose gown, opened at the front with a decorated stomacher that covered the centre front of the bodice. At the back, the train was draped to show the petticoat (underskirt). As the century progressed, the bodice became more fitted and the train narrower and less visible. Everything was made of heavy silks such as brocades and damasks and was further decorated with rich embroidery.

From the 1750s, the mantua became increasingly outdated and so another style of ‘full dress’ was also accepted for informal court occasions. This was the sacque or robe à la Française, an opened gown with double pleats falling from the shoulders at the back and a wide petticoat exposed at the front, although the latter not as wide as the mantua. Like the mantua, the robe à la Française was also highly decorated with ribbons, bows, lace and other trimmings.

The petticoat was supported by a structure called a hoop, which was stiffened with whalebone. This piece of underwear was also worn in fashionable wear (outside court) until about the 1780s, when the simpler, neo-classical style, with its raised waistline started to emerge.

Throughout the century, the hoop changed into different forms – squared (‘English hoop’) fan-shaped (‘French hoop’) and bell-shaped. At court, it was quite narrow at the sides but extremely wide at the front, sometimes reaching two metres. This presented the wearer with many challenges: doorways, for example. Women had to turn sideways to enter or leave a room. Also, to keep a perfect deportment while wearing this exhausting garment, the wearer usually took lessons by a dance master, who taught them not only how to dance but also how to curtsy, walk backwards, make elegant gestures with arms and hands and even how to move a fan gracefully.

Another issue with the hoop was its weight, which could add a couple of kilos to the whole ensemble. In 1787 Jane Austen’s sister-in-law, Eliza, complained ‘how such a meagre creature as I am, can support so much fatigue… for I only stood from two to four in the Drawing Room, and of course loaded with a great hoop of no inconsiderable weight.’ Sitting down was out of the question, of course, as it was forbidden in the presence of the monarch.

The exaggerated dimensions of the court mantua provided a perfect flat canvas on which the wearer would display her wealth and good taste. In the 18th century, textiles and their decorations were the most valuable elements of a gown, and wearing fine silk or rich embroidery was highly praised. The best silks came from Lyon in France and Spitalfields in East London. At court guests were encouraged to wear British materials and both Queen Caroline and Queen Charlotte often used fabrics produced nationally. This promotion was not always successful; matters of taste seemed to be more important than patriotism, and many courtiers purchased French textiles without hesitation.

An exquisite example of court dress is the Rockingham mantua from c1760‒65. It comprises a fitted bodice, stomacher, narrow train draped at the waist and wide, matching petticoat. It is made of French silk satin brocaded in silver thread with a design of narrow stripes and a vertical undulating ribbon of leaves and floral sprays. It is further trimmed with a delicate silver lace, also used on the stomacher. In total it consumed 14 metres of fabric, which would have cost over £10,000 in today’s money. It was probably worn by Mary, Marchioness of Rockingham, wife of British Prime Minister Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham.

Court dress was a skilful blend of splendid decoration, formality, tradition and fashion. Although impractical and old-fashioned, it provided one of the most effective means of displaying wealth, status and taste – three vital qualities for those attending court in the 18th century.

FASHION HISTORY: THE GEORGIANS

The Tudor and Stuart monarchs made significant marks on fashion, with each dynasty having their own distinctive looks. The Georgians, or the Hanoverians, also had their own distinct style but it took a very different form.

1680s

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Key fashion date: The Spitalfields silk industry is established in London

c1710

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Key fashion date: Hoops start to be worn in fashionable circles, made from cane or whalebone

1714

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Key date: Queen Anne dies and the throne passes to George of Hanover

Key fashion date: By this point the mantua is being worn as a formal day gown

1721

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Key fashion date: Printed calicos (cottons) are banned to protect domestic textile industries of woollen and linen

1727

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Key date: 11 January – George I dies, his son George II succeeds to the throne

1730s

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Key fashion date: The ‘sack back’ dress enters fashionable dress. Worn over hoop petticoats, it stays in fashion until the 1780s

1733

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Key fashion date: John Kay invents the flying shuttle which helps speed up the weaving process

1737

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Key date: Death of Queen Caroline marks the end of royal residency at Hampton Court Palace

1740s-50s

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Key fashion date: Spitalfields silks flourish with rococo-inspired floral designs

Key fashion date: Hoop petticoats reach their widest, some as much as 1.5m across

1743

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Key date: George II leads the British army into battle at Dettingen. He is the last British monarch to lead an army

1745

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Key date: July – Prince Charles Edward Stuart (Bonnie Prince Charlie) lands in Scotland to claim the British throne for his father

1746

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Key date: April – the Battle of Culloden sees the defeat of the Jacobites and the last battle fought on British soil

1747

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Key fashion date: Highland dress is banned in Scotland after the failure of the Jacobite rebellion led by Bonnie Prince Charlie

1756

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Key date: May – Start of the Seven Years War with France

1760

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Key date: 25 Oct - George II dies and his grandson becomes George III

Key date: George III abandons Hampton Court Palace and turns it into grace-and-favour apartments

1764

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Key fashion date: James Hargreaves invents the spinning jenny which revolutionises cotton manufacture as more than one yarn could be produced at a time

1765

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Key fashion date: Act of Parliament bans imported French silks. Queen Charlotte asks ladies of court to use Spitalfields silk for their court mantuas

1771

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Key fashion date: The first cotton mill is opened by Richard Arkwright in Derbyshire.

1775

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Key date: April 1775 – American War of Independence begins

1777

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Key fashion date: George III introduces the ‘Windsor Uniform’, blue jacket with red facings

1780s

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Key fashion date: Waistline in women’s fashions starts to creep upwards towards the bust

1782

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Key fashion date: The ban on Highland dress is lifted

1788

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Key date: George III suffers his first attack of ‘madness’, now thought to be porphyria

1789

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Key date: July 1789 – the storming of the Bastille marks the start of the French Revolution

1793

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Key date: Britain is at war with France

1795

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Key fashion date: William Pitt introduces a tax on hair powder

1801

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Key date: Act of Union creates the United Kingdom (England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland)

Key fashion date: Invention of the jacquard loom

1805

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Key date: October – Britain defeats France at the Battle of Trafalgar

1815

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Key date: June – Napoleon is defeated at the Battle of Waterloo

1820

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Key date: 29 January – George III dies and is succeeded by his son, George IV

1821

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Key date: Coronation of George IV

1822

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Key date: August – George IV visits Edinburgh

1830

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Key date: 26 June 1830 – George IV dies and is succeeded by his brother, William IV

1837

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Key date: 20 June 1837 – William IV dies and his niece, Victoria, inherits the throne

Queen Anne (1702-14) died at Kensington Palace on 1 August 1714. Despite 17 pregnancies, none of her children survived, bringing the Stuart line to an abrupt stop. However, Anne’s lasting legacy, the Act of Settlement of 1701, determined that distant, Protestant relatives of the small House of Hanover in what is now Germany would supply Anne’s successors.

So upon her death the Electoral Prince Georg Ludwig became King George I of Great Britain. George I (1714-27) arrived in London in September with an entourage of more than 75 German servants, courtiers, his half-sister and his mistress. His former wife, Sophia Dorothea of Celle, was left behind. She had been divorced and imprisoned for adultery (George’s own affairs not being considered worthy of concern).

Neither George’s character nor his experience made him an easy fit for King of England. He was shy, hated crowds and disliked the opulence of court life. Though fluent in French and German, he spoke little English and throughout his reign spent much of his time in Germany. A Hanoverian monarch was almost a dictator, which hardly prepared the King for dealing with the turbulent English Parliament.

The King’s personal life was overshadowed by a mutual hatred between him and his son, George Augustus, Prince of Wales. Their relationship reached crisis point in 1717 and the Prince and Princess of Wales were expelled from their father’s court. They promptly set up a rival and more exciting court at their home, Leicester House, and courtiers had to pick sides. In 1720, father and son reached a grudging reconciliation but relations remained strained.

After years of bitter wrangling with his father, George II (1727-60) assumed the throne in 1727.

George II had a fiery temper and a love of routine, making him both boorish and boring. He had a keen interest in history but made no secret of his contempt for literature and the arts. By contrast, his wife Queen Caroline was a charismatic host, with a shrewd intellect and a love of art and music.

George II also had an obsessive love of all things military and had fought bravely – he was the last British monarch to lead his troops into battle. His reign witnessed the beginnings of the British Empire and during the Jacobite rising of 1745, he faced down the threat to his rule.

Despite numerous affairs, George II was deeply in love with his wife and together they had eight children. When she died in 1737, he was heartbroken, vowing that he would never marry again. Once again, the king hated his eldest son, Frederick, Prince of Wales. When Frederick died prematurely in 1751, his son and George’s grandson, also George, became heir apparent.

George III (1760-1820) succeeded the throne in 1760 as the first truly British Hanoverian. Unlike his grandfather and great-grandfather, he had been born in Britain and he never even visited his German electorate.

George III was a diligent, serious and steadfastly religious king, fascinated by botany and agriculture, to the extent he was nicknamed ‘Farmer George’. He was also a keen music lover and a patron of the arts, providing funding to the newly formed Royal Academy.

George III married Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz the year he became king. The two had 15 children and although loving, George III was overly controlling and his sons rebelled, adopting dissolute and extravagant lifestyles with a string of secret marriages and liaisons that left the father of 15 with only two legitimate grandchildren.

In 1788, the nation was thrown into turmoil when the King was declared ‘mad’ after the onset of a mysterious illness. He recovered after a few months but suffered two more acute attacks in 1801 and 1804. As his health continued to deteriorate his eldest son, George Augustus Frederick, was made Prince Regent in 1811, ruling on his father’s behalf until the King’s death in 1820.

George IV’s (1820-30) fondness for art, food and his extravagant lifestyle contributed to fashions of the Regency era, as he became a patron of new forms of leisure and taste. The wayward prince had numerous mistresses, ran up huge debts and quickly became the target of satirical cartoonists who mocked his overindulgence.

Under pressure to produce a legitimate heir and to get Parliament to pay his debts, he wed the German princess Caroline of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel in 1795. The disastrous marriage resulted in the birth of one daughter, Princess Charlotte. Sadly, two potential heirs were wiped out when Charlotte died in 1817 after giving birth to a stillborn son. Her father was heartbroken and was committed to his bed for weeks afterwards. By the time George IV succeeded to the throne in 1820 he was obese, addicted to laudanum and seemingly dedicated only to self-gratification. His coronation was the most overblown and expensive in British history; his reign lasted just ten years.

After four successive Georges, William IV (1830-37) succeeded his brother in 1830. As the third son of George III, William had not expected to inherit the throne. During his successful navy career, William was known for his informal manner and raucous lifestyle. Aged 25 he met and fell in love with the actress Dorothea Jordan. The two lived together for 20 years and had 10 children. After their separation, he had a string of affairs before marrying Princess Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen in 1818.

In middle age, William became a reformed character: he settled into marriage, paid off his debts and took his royal duty seriously. But the happy marriage produced no heirs, and the ageing ailing King clung steadfastly on to life so that his niece, Princess Victoria (1837-1901), was old enough to inherit the throne directly. He died in 1837, less than a month after Victoria’s 18th birthday.